The Means of Acceptance in Contract Law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 3138 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Argumentative essay Level High school Did you like this example? THE MEANS OF ACCEPTANCE Acceptance is the second stage of discovering whether an agreement has been reached under classical contract theory is to look for an acceptance which matches the offer that has been made. No particular formula is required for a valid acceptance. As has been explained above, an offer must be in a form whereby a simple assent to it is suf ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ cient to lead to a contract being formed. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Means of Acceptance in Contract Law" essay for you Create order It is in many cases, therefore, enough for an acceptance to take the form of the person to whom the offer has been made simply saying à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"yes, I agreeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. In some situations, however, particularly where there is a course of negotiations between the parties, it may become more dif ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ cult to determine precisely the point when the parties have exchanged a matching offer and acceptance. Unless they do match exactly, so the classical theory requires, there can be no contract. An à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"offerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and an à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"acceptanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ must fit t together like two pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. If they are not the same, they will not slot together, and the picture will be incomplete. At times, as we shall see, the English courts have adopted a somewhat  ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡exible approach to the need for a precise equivalence. Nevertheless, once it is decided that there is a match, it is as if the two pi eces of the jigsaw had been previously treated with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"superglueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, for once in position it will be very hard, if not impossible, to pull them apart. The acceptance can be in many circumstance in order to communicate the acceptance of offer. First is acceptance by conduct which usually in unilateral contract, the acceptance will always be by conduct. This issue was considered in Brogden v Metropolitan Railway where the plaintiffs sent the defendants a draft agreement for the supply of a certain quantity of coal per week from 1 January 1872, at  £1 per ton. The defendants completed the draft by adding the name of an arbitrator, signed it and returned it to the plaintiffs. This constituted an offer. The plaintiffsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ manager, however, simply put the signed agreement into a drawer. There was no communication of acceptance by the plaintiffs. Coal was ordered and delivered on the terms speci ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ed in the contract for a period of time, until there was a dispute between the parties. The defendants then argued that there was no contract, because the plaintiffs had never accepted their offer, as contained in the signed agreement. The House of Lords con ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ rmed that it was not enough that the plaintiffs should have decided to accept there had to be some external manifestation of acceptance. In this case, however, that was supplied by the fact that the plaintiffs had placed orders on the basis of the agreement. The defendants should therefore be taken to be bound by its terms.[1] Next is acceptance by silence which can be proven in the case Felthouse v Bindley (1862) where the uncle was negotiating to buy a horse from his nephew. The uncle wrote to his nephew offering a particular sum and saying à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"If I hear no more about him, I consider the horse mineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The nephew did not respond, but told an auctioneer to remove this horse from a forthcoming auction. The auctioneer omitted to do so, and the horse was sold to a third party. The uncle sued the auctioneer, and the question arose as to whether the uncle had made a binding contract for the purchase of the horse. There was no contract, because the nephew had never communicated. The case was held that his intention to accept his uncleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s offer. It is true that he had taken an action (removing the horse from the auction) which objectively could be taken to have indicated his intention to accept, but because his uncle knew nothing of this at the time, it was not effective to complete the contract[2]. Lastly is the acceptance by post which I will explain in detail the reason by the court for the postal acceptance rule and in what circumstances will be postal acceptance not operate. I will also include the relevant case study in this section. INTRODUCTION OF POSTAL RULE A requirement of communication will not, however, answer all problems. In the modern world communica tion can take many forms such as face-to-face conversations, telephone, letters, faxes, or email. In some of these, there will be a delay between the sending of an acceptance and its coming to the attention of the offeror. The law of contract has to have rules, therefore, to make clear what is meant by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"communicationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The simplest rule would be to say that no communication is effective until it is received and understood by the person to whom it is addressed. This is, in effect, the rule that applies to offers, though, as we shall see, there are some cases which suggest that it may be possible to accept an offer of which you are unaware. These cases are of dubious authority, however, and can only possibly apply in very restricted circumstances. In any case, they simply suggest that in some situations, communication of an offer may not be necessary. Where communication of the offer is required, which is the case in virtually all situations, it is sa fe to say that communication means that the person to whom the offer is addressed is aware of it. Why should the position be any different as regards acceptances? The problem  ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ rst arose in relation to the post, where the delay is likely to be longest. Generally speaking, there will be a delay of at least 12 to 18 hours between the sending of an acceptance by post, and its receipt by the addressee. According to the Enfores v Miles Far East Corporation (1955) case, it state that long-understood need for acceptance to be communicated, what constitutes effective communication can be debatable. Here is the fact of the Enfores v Miles Far East Corporation case. Enfores sent a telex massage from England offering to purchase 100 tons of Cathodes from the Miles Far East Corporation in London. The offer was accept by the Dutch agent. Communication took place when a clerk type a massage that was at the same time and automatically printed by the recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s machine. Enfores argued that the contract was complete when the offeror received the telex massage of acceptance in England. But Miles Far East said that the contract was finish when acceptance massage was sent in the Holland. The court held that the contract was made in England because to amount to an effective acceptance the acceptance needed to be communicated to the offeree. WHAT IS DECISION IN ADAM V LINDSELL (1818) In the case Adam Lindsell (1818) the defendants sent a letter to the plaintiffs offering wool for sale, and he asking for a reply à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"in course of postà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The letter was misdirected by the defendants, and arrived later than would normally have been the case. The plaintiffs replied at once accepting, but the defendants, having decided that because of the delay the plaintiffs were not going to accept, had already sold the wool elsewhere. The plaintiffs sued for breach of contract. The court decided that to require a posted acceptance t o arrive at its. The court held that destination before it could be effective would be impractical and in ef ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ cient. The acceptor would not be able to take any action on the contract until it had been con ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ rmed that the acceptance had arrived. The court felt that this might result in each side waiting for con ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ rmation of receipt of the last communicational in ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ nitum. This would not promote business ef ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ cacy. It would be much better if, as soon as the letter was posted, the acceptor could proceed on the basis that a contract had been made, and take action accordingly. The plaintiffs therefore succeeded, the defendants were in breach of contract. The court, in coming to this conclusion, was thus giving priority to the practicalities of doing business over the question of whether, at the time the contract was formed, the parties were in agreement. It was quite possible that by the time the letter of acce ptance was posted, the offeror had had a change of mind and sent a withdrawal of the offer, or made a contract with someone else. Nevertheless, because in the courtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view the conduct of business would in general be better served by giving the offeree certainty in this situation, the postal rule was established[3] The reason that have been given by court for the Postal rule is, an exception to the general rule citing that an acceptance is only create when communicated directly to the offeror. The posting regulation stated, by contrast, that acceptance takes effect when a letter is posted. It also state that if an offer are made by post, then the acceptance are made during the time of post. While the decision in the Henthorn v Fraser (1892) is it was held to be reasonable to post acceptance in response to an oral offer because the parties lived some distance away from each other[4]. This is the brief about the case that I understand which is on 7th July Henthor n from Birkenhead, called office of land society in Liverpool. Henthorn negotiated to buy some houses belonging to the land society. Secretary agreed to sell to him, giving him an option of purchase for 14 days at  £750. After that, on 8th July Morning, Another person called, offered  £760 for the property, offer accepted. At 12-1 pm, Secretary withdrawed the offer made to Henthorn. 3.50pm, Claimant delivered letter accepting the offer, but letter arrived at 8.30 pm, after the office was closed. At 5pm, Withdrawal offer arrived at Birkenhead. Secretary opened the letter on the next morning. Claimant sued for specific performance. The court held the case for specific performance granted, Postal Rule applies as acceptance occurred before. Defendant was told to sell the land. In conclusion, the offeree in Henthorn, on the other hand, certainly knew of the offerorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s promise to give him an option à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“for fourteen daysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and qu ite possibly relied on it. Arguably, therefore, the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“mailboxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  rule should work in favor of offerees but not against them. But this might allow offerees to speculate at the offerorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s expense, using the telephone or telegraph to overtake a letter of acceptance in transit when the market shifts[5] EXCEPTION TO THE POSTAL RULE Here is some cases that exception to the postal rule. First is Quenerduaine v Cole (1883) which is the defendant made an offer by telegram where the plaintiff be told to accept by letter. The court said that an offer which are made by telegram, shows that the quick acceptance are required so that the postal rule was not applied. Second in the Household Fire and Carriage Accident Insurance Company v Grant which Grant offer to buy the shares from Household Fire and Carriage Accident Insurance Company. Then the company accept Grant offer and allotted the shares to him. Later, the latter of allotment was sent to h im to the address that he give. The latter never reached to him until a month later then he received the letter that ask him for a payment of a partly paid and demand by the company for Grant to pay the next instalment due on shares. So that the court conclude that Grant does not receive his allotment later. This is means in practice a contract complete upon the acceptance of an offer being posted, but liable to be put an end to by an accident in the post, would be more mischievous than a contract only binding upon the parties to it upon the acceptance actually reaching the offerer. Third in Yates Building Co. Ltd v. Pulleyn Son (York) Ltd (1975) case which they make a states that any requirements about the method of acceptance must be clearly stated to be valid. In this case, Pulleyn give Yates to buy a building land. The option hereby granted shall be exercisable by notice in writing given by or on behalf of Yates to Pulleyns or to Pulleyns solicitors at any time between April 6 1973 and May 6 1973 such notice to be sent by registered or recorded delivery post to the registered office of Pulleyns or the offices of their said solicitors. On Monday April 30 1973 Yatess solicitors posted a letter to Pulleyns solicitors to formally exercise the option; they enclosed a cheque for  £1,890 for the deposit. The letter was sent by ordinary post and not by registered or recorded delivery post but it arrived well in time. It was opened by Pulleyns solicitors at some time on or before Friday May 4 1973. On that Friday Pulleyns solicitors wrote back to Yatess solicitors returning the cheque for the deposit and said: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"we write to acknowledge receipt today of your letter of April 30 1973 with its enclosure. You will recall that clause 2 of the option agreement provides for notice to be sent by a registered or recorded delivery post. Your letter was not so sent. Yates brought proceedings for specific performance, but the judge refused it. He held that this requirement that the letter had to be sent by registered or recorded delivery post was a requirement which must be complied with, and as it had not been complied with, there was no contract. Yates appealed.[6] Fourth is Tinn v Hoffman (1873) case which means that where a requirement for a certain type of reply has been made, an equally effective mode of communication will also be deemed acceptable provided it is just as quick and does not disadvantage the offeror. An offer by e-mail could therefore be accepted by telephone[7]. In this case the judge held that an acceptance could be effective even though it departed from the wording of the offer by making express some term which the law would in any case imply. And reply add some new provision by way of indulgence to the offer may be acceptance. Conversely, an acceptance in which acceptor ask for extra time to pay may be effective, so longs as he makes it clear that he is prepared to perform in accordance with the term of the offer event if his request is refused. WHAT DOES PROPERLY POSTED MEANS In the case in Re London and Northern Bank (1900), the letter of acceptance was not properly posted because the letter of acceptance was handed to a postman only authorised to deliver mail and not to collect it. In this case, even though the letter was actually posted, the courts held that handing the letter to a postman was not accepted way of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"postingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. They referred to the actual à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Postal Guideà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  which clearly described instructions where postmen were allowed to take letters only from a post box. It is apparent that the courts wanted to prevent the situation where the postal rule would apply to any means of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"postingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"sendingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ letter and therefore restricted it only to Post Office and its guidelines. It is imperative to remember that the postal rule will also not be applicable where it would cause manifest inconvenience and absurdity. DOES THE POSTAL RULE APPLY TO REVOCATION It is clear from the abovementioned, that the application of the postal rule can have different variations and implications. When considering its function, it is essential to know when an acceptance becomes legally effective and also whether it can be revoked. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"arguableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ point when considering relevance of postal rule in 21st century is that in view of courts, before the acceptance is made the offeror can call the offer off, but once the acceptance has even made this is no longer possible.[8] Fundamentally, the offer may be revoked by the offeror only until that time it is being accepted and furthermore the revocation must be communicated to the offeree otherwise desired revocation will be ineffective. In this case, there are two case that relate with this situation. First is Byrne Co v. Van Tienhoven Co (1880) where Van Tienhoven mailed proposal to sell 1,000 boxes of tin plates to Byrne at fixed price on October 1st. later, Van Tienhoven mailed a revocation of offer on October 8th. But Byrne does not receive the revocation until 20th. In the middle on October 11th Byrne receive the original offers and accepted by telegram and turned around and resold the merchandise to a third party on the 15th. He brought an action for non-performance. However, the courts confirmed the long-standing idea that any revocation of an offer must be communicated to the offeree, although again there are some exceptions to this rule. Next case is Dickinson v. Dodds (1876) case which the revocation can be informed by a reliable third party. This can proved by the situation where the Dodds accepted an offer from a third party to purchase the house. Dodds then asked a friend to tell Dickinson that the offer was withdrawn. On hearing the news, the Dickinson went round to the house first thing Friday morning purporting to accept the offer. He then brought an action seeking specific performance of the contract. In this case the court held that the offer had been effectively revoked. Therefore no contract existed between the parties. There was no obligation to keep the offer open until Friday since the claimant had provided no consideration in exchange for the promise. The offeror is free to withdraw the offer at any time before acceptance takes place unless a deposit has been paid[9] CONCLUSION In order to apply the postal rule, both parties need to really understand the condition of their contract. They must aware to the risk that they will faced during the period of affair agreement such as delaying of the letter, the missing of the letter and also misdirect the letter. Not only that, while the posting of the acceptance, they must know at the time they post, the acceptance are made. Moreover, it is evident that the arguments relating to retention or desertion of the general rule are advanced, it is also clear from the aforementioned that in order to provide the valid conclusion the legislators have to consider many aspects of communication that is conducted by electronic means. In addition, it is essential to also asses the rule applicable to revocation of contract as the technology development has changed the way how and when the acceptance takes place and therefore it can be often discriminatory to bind offeror and leave alternatives largely open for the offeree. [1] https://www.scribd.com/doc/90693946/The-Modern-Law-of-Contract-Eighth-Edition [2] https://www.scribd.com/doc/90693946/The-Modern-Law-of-Contract-Eighth-Edition [3] THE MODERN LAWOF CONTRACT, Eighth Edition, Richard Stone Elston, Newark April 2009 [4] https://www.lawteacher.net/contract-law/cases/adams-v-lindsell.php#ixzz2yJ3tw2dg [5] https://lawstudent94.blogspot.com/2012/05/henthorn-v-fraser-1892-mailbox-postal.html [6] https://www.legalmax.info/members2/conbook/yates_bu.htm [7] https://suite.io/zoe-kirk-robinson/3a99230 [8] MacIntyre, 2010: 84 [9] https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Dickinson-v-Dodds.php

Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee - 899 Words

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President Nixons Secret Bombing of Cambodia Essay

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The burglars’ missionRead MoreRichard Nixon s Foreign Policy22 11 Words   |  9 PagesGeorge Washington, our first president, decided that isolationism would protect America. And while Americans followed Washington’s philosophy for decades, foreign policy still leaked through the cracks. The Monroe doctrine radically shifted America isolationism from complete dissociation to selective dissociation. Overall, America’s foreign goals have shifted further outward as the years went on. Although many presidents boast adroit foreign policies, Richard Nixon’s foreign policy deserves a larger

Economic Growth free essay sample

Growth is associated with structural, social change and change in the important institutions of the economy. These institutions evolve within the development process. Institutions are the result of past historical and social developments. Since different countries have different pasts, institutions will vary. â€Å"Development is about improving the quality of people’s lives, expanding their ability to shape their own futures† Development is the process of expanding the real freedom that people enjoy, with expansion of freedom viewed as the primary end and the principle means of development†. Development is multi-faceted and therefore difficult to measure as oppose to economic growth. Policies that work well in one country may not work in others. Cumulative causation: Development is not a smooth process as it is related to vicious and virtuous cycles. Cumulative causation suggests that difference will magnify whereby convergence (a mainstream economic concept) wil l not be achievable. Cumulative causation destructs the concept of equilibrium. Consumer and business confidence growth has a positive impact on business profits confidence. A stronger economy will help to persuade consumers that the time is right to make major purchases 5. Growth can also help protect the environment such as low-carbon investment, innovation andresearch and development, resulting in more efficient production processes to reduce costs. Ethical consumerism and corporate social responsibility has become important in recent years. Disadvantages of economic growth There are economic and social costs of a fast-expanding economy. Inflation risk: If demand races ahead of aggregate supply the scene is set for rising prices. Many fast growing developing countries have seen high rates of inflation in recent years, a good example is India Working hours – sometimes there are fears that a fast-growing economy places increasing demands on the hours that people work and can upset work-life balance Structural change – although a growing economy will be creating more jobs, it also leads to structural changes in the pattern of jobs. Some industries will be in decline whilst others will be expanding. Structural unemployment can rise even though it appears that a country is growing – the labour force needs to be occupationally mobile. Environmental concerns: Fast growth can create negative externalities for example higher levels of noise pollution and lower air quality arising from air pollution and road congestion Increased consumption of de-merit goods which damages social welfare It can leads to a huge increase in household and industrial waste which again creates external costs for society What can limit the rate of economic growth? Infrastructure – infrastructure includes capital such as ports, transport networks, energy, power and water supplies and telecommunications networks. Poor infrastructure hampers growth because it causes higher costs and delays for businesses, reduces the mobility of labour and hits the ability of export businesses to get their products to international markets. A good example is India whose future growth is often said to be threatened by structural weaknesses in her infrastructure. Many countries will need to increase their spending on infrastructure in the years ahead to adapt to and deal with the consequences of climate change. Dependence on limited exports – many nations still relying on specialising and then exporting low value added primary commodities and the prices of these goods can be highly volatile on world markets. When prices fall, an economy will see a sharp reduction in export incomes, a higher trade deficit and a growing risk that a nation will not be able to finance investment in education, healthcare and core infrastructure. Over-specialisation can make a country vulnerable to the global economic cycle. Vulnerability to external shocks – in today’s global economy, events in one part of the world can quickly have an effect in many other countries. Consider the fall-out from the global financial crisis of 2007-2010 which brought about recession and deep financial distress in many regions. Low national savings and low absolute savings – savings are needed to provide finance for investment. In many smaller low-income countries, high levels of poverty make it almost impossible to generate sufficient savings to provide the funds needed to fund investment projects. This increases reliance on international borrowing or tied aid. Limited access to financial capital and poorly developed domestic capital markets – this is particularly the case for many small, low-income countries Corruption and poor governance – this is a crucial factor for many developing countries. High levels of deeply embedded corruption and bureaucratic delays can harm growth in many ways for example inhibiting inward investment and also making it more likely that domestic businesses will invest overseas rather than at home. Governments need a stable and effective legal framework to collect taxes to pay for public services. Look at deficit and debt problems facing countries such as Greece. In India, there are 15 times more phone subscribers than taxpayers. If a legal system cannot protect private property rights then there will be less research and development innovation. Declining and/or ageing population – in some countries the actual size of the population is declining partly as a result of net outward migration. If a nation loses many younger workers this can have a damaging effect on growth. The changing age-structure of a population also matters, leading for example to a fall in the ratio of workers to dependants. Rising inflation – fast growing countries may experience an accelerating rate of inflation which can have damaging economic consequences – these are covered in the chapter on inflation. Two effects in particular can hit growth, namely falling real incomes and profits together with higher costs and reduced competitiveness in international markets. In our chart below we track real GDP growth and inflation rates in India – notice the steep rise in inflation in recent years. Many other developing countries have seen high rates of inflation in large part because of booming food and other commodity prices.