Psychological Approaches Of Modern Psychology - 850 Words

I have chosen question numbers two and four for my test. For question two, I will list and define the five psychological approaches of modern psychology we have studied.1) The Biological Approach: The biological approach believes everything is hardwired to our genes, hormones and nervous system and how it interacts with our environment. ( Plotnik-Pg 6) Our physical bodies shape our behavior, for example, autism is believed to originate in early brain development, where brain cells appear to connect irregularly. ( Plotnik-Pg 6) This is the approach where we see most of our genetic illness such as epilepsy, Alzheimer’s, bi-polar disorder and schizophrenia. Although, there are other factors that can contribute to these disorders other than biological, which we will discuss later.2) The Behavioral Approach: The behavioral approach analyzes how all living creatures behavior is learned by events in their lives that either reward or punish. ( Plotnik-Pg 8) It has been proven that if rats in a maze are rewarded with food they will take the same path over and over but change the ending of that very same path to a punishment and they will avoid taking it again. Humans learn the same way; if one holds onto a match to long and burns their finger, they will be careful to make sure; they put it out before it reaches that point next time. If one suffers from an anxiety disorder, learning ways to control behavior would be extremely beneficial 3) The Cognitive Approach: The cognitiveShow MoreRelatedThe Contribution of Different Approaches to Psychology for the Development of Modern Psychology1147 Words   |  5 Pages Psychology is a vast field which consists of theories and approaches where it involves certain assumptions on human behavior. How they function and the aspects of the behavior that needs to be studied, in addition to the research methods that are needed to be followed in order to understand it thoroughly. These approaches provide characteristic v iewpoints and emphasize different factors. These approaches have contributed towards the development of modern psychology in various ways. Read MorePsychology Is The Scientific Study Of The Human Mind And Its Behaviors1625 Words   |  7 PagesBy definition, Psychology is â€Å"the scientific study of the human mind and its behaviours†. However, originally, Psychology did not begin as a science. The subject of Psychology began in 1879 when the first experimental laboratory was opened by Wilhelm Wundt. Since its establishment, Psychology has progressed into a world-renowned academic discipline with the formation of the first American experimental lab in 1883 and the first doctorate in 1886 which was presented to Joseph Jastrow, who became aRead MoreThe Founding Of The First Laboratory By Wilhelm Wundt Essay797 Words   |  4 PagesThe founding of the first laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 began the fascination for psychological research. Psychology had not yet became a science until Wundt realized that human activities can be examined through careful observations, manipulations, descriptions, and control aimed at measuring/ predicting behavior. Early on psychology was about the study of behavior and mental processes. Today, psychology ranges from neural messages to cultural influences. Wundt adopted protocols from physiologyRead MoreThe Development of Counseling and Psychotherapy1862 Words   |  7 Pagescontribution to the field of counseling and psychotherapy remains immense. Indeed, it can be noted that in one way or the other, the foundation of psychological therapies is firmly rooted in Freuds contributions. However, modern bodies of thought have over time contributed towards the shaping of quite a number of modern counseling and psychotherapy approaches. During the 1880s, Freud was involved in a number of research studies in an attempt to shed some light on the workings of the human brain. TheRead MoreInvestigating The Expository Qualification And The Debate Between The Personalistic And Naturalistic Position1574 Words   |  7 PagesPersonalistic and Naturalistic position in the originations of experimental history in psychological research, it likewise clarified the correlation between the two ideas and how the zeitgeist secured the associations with each of these ideas. Zeitgeist portrays as the â€Å"spirit of the time† and amid the seventeenth and nineteenth hundreds of years. On the occasion of the recorded advancement of exploratory psychological science, the two primary perspectives have developed. The personalistic are enrichedRead MorePsychological Perspectives Of Human Behavior1542 Words   |  7 Pagesevaluate at least three psychological perspectives of human behaviour. The purpose of this essay is to outline and evaluate at least three psychological perspectives of human behaviour. The three approaches that will be summarised are humanistic, social learning theory and the Biological approach. They will also be criticised and compared to one another. A brief description on psychology will occur, and there will also be a short summarisation on some key early influences of psychology, from its originsRead MoreThe Question in the Origins of Psychology is What Drives Us and Why722 Words   |  3 Pagesscholars such as Aristotle and Descartes. Scholars like these would ask psychological questions about what drives us and why. It was not until the late nineteenth century that psychological research was considered as its own scientific discipline. Psychology began in 1879 when a man named Wilhelm Wundt set up a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. This laboratory would be considered the birth place of experimental psychology. Within the laboratory, Wundt independently trained over 180 studentsRead MoreFour Major Approaches to Clinical Psychology1803 Words   |  7 PagesThere are many approaches to clinical psychology; the four major approaches are in psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family systems. Using the four major approaches contributes to the effectiveness in treatment by identifying the goals of each approach. The paper will break down the approaches, goals, techniques, and the overall approaches used. Philosophical Origins of Clinical Psychology ApproachesAs Thomas Plante (2005) cleverly suggested, clinical psychology is both a scienceRead MoreAbnormal Psychology1154 Words   |  5 Pages Abnormal Psychology: The field of abnormal psychology is a scientific discipline that focuses on examining the causes of mental dysfunction or abnormal behavior. Some of the major areas of study in this field include emotional disturbance, psychopathology, mental illness, and maladjustment. This scientific discipline examines abnormal behavior since such actions are expressed due to psychological dysfunction that contains some features of deviance, potential injury, and distress. As various typesRead MorePsychological Approaches : Behaviorism, Cognitive And Humanistic Approach1659 Words   |  7 Pages1.1 Analysis of three psychological approaches; behaviourism, cognitive and humanistic. Three psychological approaches will be discussed in this essay, it will analyse the strengths and limitations of each the humanistic, cognitive and the humanistic approach. This essay will consider the contributions made to therapies in the modern life; evaluate how valid the methodology is using case studies to back up these theories and how they contribute to each other to becoming an approach. The behaviourist

Animal Testing Saves Lives - 2225 Words

Animal Testing Saves Lives Animals have been used for testing by scientists for many decades. The research that has been gathered from animals has surpassed anything scientists could hope for. So why would such a highly debatable topic arise from such great accomplishments? Scientists use animals to test a theory and then alter their theories based upon the valuable information gathered from each experiment. Animal rights activists believe that animals are used for pointless tests and suffer tremendously. They tend to look aside from the facts that animals have given millions around the world a new outlook on life, and would rather see only the negative side effects of animal testing which far outweighs the positive things animal testing†¦show more content†¦Scientists injected extracted pancreatic cells, which contained the hormone insulin into a dog suffering from diabetes and found it to be highly effective. Given continued research using animals, we can expect further ad vances in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis and crippling joint diseases. It is very difficult to see how we could have such medical advances without animal research (RDS-net.org 1). From there on the tests were then given to humans, and as a result, millions of diabetics, and cancer sufferers are alive and living healthy lives. Apart from humans, animal testing is not just used to benefit people, but animals themselves benefit from the research that is gathered. Under the skin animals are very similar to humans, so animals too suffer from many of the same diseases. Illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, asthma and malaria are suffered by many species and can be treated in much the same way (RDS-net.org 1). Animals benefit much from treatments and medicines that had been initially developed for humans, such examples are antibiotics, anesthetics, antiparasitics, and insulin for diabetes. The fact is that nearly ninety percent of veterinary medicines in use t oday are either similar or very similar to those developed to treat humans. Even diagnostic techniques such as scanners and surgery practices that are used to remove tumors andShow MoreRelatedAnimal Testing Should Save People s Lives2260 Words   |  10 PagesThe first cases of animal testing happened in the ancient times to satisfy a curiosity for anatomy and to obtain knowledge. Back in these days a researcher would cut open an awake animal before a crowd. Belgian Andreas Vesalius and his students in Padua, Italy demonstrated public lectures on anatomy. â€Å"An animal, usually a dog, would be cut open while still alive and the function of each organ would be speculated upon as it was located† (Monamy 9). Today animals are used as a way to test new andRead More Animal Testing Needs To Stop Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagesshould stop animal testing. By animal testing, the companies not only violate the animals rights (which is breaking the law), but their testing methods are hazardous which endanger the animals life. Finally, the companies should stop animal testing because each year we lose hundreds of thousands of animals and could make a difference by stopping this cruelty. Stop the animal testing, and save a life. To start with, cosmetic and drug companies should stop animal testing their productsRead MoreAnimal Testing Is Unethical?1061 Words   |  5 PagesCOMM101-110 Speech Title: Why Animal Testing Is Unethical General Purpose: To expose my audience to animal testing. Specific Purpose: To make people aware of how animal testing is cruel and outdated. Organizational Pattern: INTRODUCTION: (1) Attention Getting Device: Years ago animal testing was started to help humans obtain information. Now almost every product on the market has been tested on an animal during some stage of its production. Through these test thousands of animals die painful deaths everyRead More History and Pros of Animal Testing Essay1233 Words   |  5 PagesHistory and Pros of Animal Testing Abstract: Animal research refers to the use of non-human animals for testing or experimenting on. The first recorded use of animals for testing started with the Greeks in the third and fourth century BC. The use of animals for testing is usually in the basic fields of; biomedical research, security, evaluation and education of a product. It is estimated that almost 50 million—100 million animals are tested on and killed annually, but this is usually done toRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned Essay1369 Words   |  6 Pagesheartbreaking, miserable animals: that is what comes to mind when animal testing is mentioned. While some of it may be true, testing animals for medical reasons is necessary. Animal testing has led to the advancement of medical research and has help device many medicines, it is the reason animal testing is still being used. The fact that experimenting on animals has led to great medical discoveries, does not mean that animal testing is not morally ambiguous. Animal testing has many flaws and reasonsRead MoreCase Study: The Benefits of Animal Testing Essay1718 Words   |  7 Pagesthat will save her life. The transplant goes extremely well and now Amy has the opportunity to go to high school and live a normal teenage life.   Like Amy, many lives are positively transformed due to the amazing surgery of organ transplants. Scientist and doctors are due the credit for this amazing procedure. However, often overlooked, is the fact that this fascinating medical procedure would not be possible without the use of animal experimentation. Animal testing allows doctors to save countlessRead MoreShould Animal Testing Be Ethical?1328 Words   |  6 PagesAnimal testing has been an important type of research in various science fields for many years, because it has been able to replicate the results of the research to positively affect humans. It has provided many cures to diseases and many basic products that are mass produced such as lotion, sha mpoo, sunscreen, etc. Adding on, animal testing is ethical since it follows many guidelines and restrictions made by numerous laws that protect animals from inhumane treatment. Although such testing can provideRead MoreEssay about Using Animals in Research and Experimentation623 Words   |  3 PagesAnimals should be used for research and Experimentation because if the animals get sick or show any signs of acting abnormal then the scientists know it isn’t safe for humans to use. Animal research has played a big role in nearly every medical breakthrough over the last decade. Animals have the same organ system that perform the same task, which helps determine if what is being tested is safe for humans to use. Most of the medicines animals use the same medicine as humans like antibiotics, painRead Moreanimal testing essay1139 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Animal testing can be defined as the process of using animals in experiments. Normally the research such as biomedical researches, drug tests and toxicology tests are conducted in universities, medical schools, and pharmaceutical companies. Scientists use many types of animals in their experiments such as guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, monkeys, chimpanzees, rats, mice, dogs and cats. Around 50-100 millions vertebrates are used in experiments annually and in United States, the number of rats andRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned864 Words   |  4 Pages Animal testing or animal experimentation is the use of non-human animals in experiments. (Merriam) We as humans have been using animals to test products that the reaction is unknown. Even though we might benefit from this testing, the benefit does not justify how we treat animals. Scientist such as, Claude Bernard, known as the father of physiology, have said that â€Å"experiments on animals are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man. The effects of these substances are the same

Discussion about relevance of ethical theories in ict industry

Question: Discuss about theRelevance of Ethical Theories in ICT Industry. Answer: Introduction: From the beginning the ICT industry is an industry of debate and controversy due to the security concerns and ethics related issues. Therefore it is important to address the different ethical issues in the ICT industry. Primarily this issues includes privacy, intellectual content right and violation of different ethical principles. The purpose of this report is to address the relevance of different ethical theories in the operations and practices of ICT industry. Moreover, this essay also finds out the connection between the code of ethics like ACS, ACM, and IEEE code of ethics and different ethical theories. This particular assignment firmly focuses on analyzing the relevance of Ethical theory in ICT industry. This study discusses the different ethical theories that relevant to ICT industry. Compare and contrast all the theories with examples. Moreover, this essay also explain the relevance of ethical theories with the code of ethics Discussion and Analysis Discussion about Different Ethical Theories Ethics can be defined as moral standards that is helpful for people to guide their actions, behaviour and choices. Hence it is important to provide guidelines to users so that they can combat with different malicious attacks on availability, confidentiality and integrity of electronic system and data (Gillespie and Ananny 2015). Ethics in information and communication technology helps users to avoid different possible dangers like fraud and forgery; cyber offences related to ownership of content like violations of intellectual property rights.There are different ethical principles that are followed in Information and communication technology (Stahl et al. 2014). This list of theories includes theory of beneficence, theory of least harm, respect to autonomy, theory of utilitarianism, theory of deontology, theory of rights and lastly theory of virtue. Theory of virtue: This ethical theory judges a person by their character and not by their actions that may change from their normal behaviour (Crossler et al. 2013). It considers an individuals reputation, morals and their motivation while rating his/ her irregular behaviour. The weakness of this theory is it does not consider an individuals change in moral character. Therefore it becomes impossible to determine the deviation of someones moral from his/ her regular behaviour (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015). Theory of Rights: In this ethical theory, main aim is to protect rights that are established by society. These rights are protected since these are ethically correct and endorsed by a large number of people from the society (Crossler et al. 2013). The major drawback of this ethical theory is, it is almost impossible to determine the unethical until someone has the idea about the characteristics of right in a particular society. The society determines that which rights are to be upheld and which are going to be given to its citizens (Obalola, Aduloju and Olowokudejo 2012). Hence to effectively use the theory of rights it needs to be used in combination with another theory that determines particular goals and priorities of a certain society. Theory of Beneficence: The theory of beneficence helps the decision maker helps the decision maker to choose between right and wrong (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015). This theory helps to have a possible and acceptable solution for an ethical question or dilemma (Stahl et al. 2014). This theory is mainly associated with utilitarian ethical theory. Theory of least harm: This theory deals with situations in which no decision seems to be beneficial. In this situations decision is made to do least harm (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015). It is done since the harm is unavoidable and to minimize the effect of the harm to a lesser number of people. Theory of Deontology: The ethical theories of this class suggest that users should abide by the obligations and responsibilities when they are making decisions and ethics has its role in this process (Gillespie and Ananny 2015). According to this theory, a user who adhere deontological theory is very consistent with his/her decisions as those decisions are based upon their duties. Since information communication technology is used as tool of gathering knowledge, therefore it is important to protect the rights which are already considered as legal in different regions of world. According to Daz-Campo and Segado-Boj (2015), violations of these rights created new problems like cyber-crime, digital security related concerns. These issues had affected users of ICT in direct or indirect way (Crossler et al. 2013). In the countries where internet and other ICT technologies are used widely, absence of ethical guidelines has caused huge harm to the business, governmental organization or to individuals. Comparison and Contrast Between Different Theories Comparison between Deontology and virtue theory: The deontology theory states that an action is ethical if it is based on some principle or any moral rule (Stahl,Eden, Jirotka and Coeckelbergh 2014). Again according to virtue theory actions rightness is determined according to the circumstances in which they are taken. According to deontology morals rules are those which require rationality. In case of virtue theory the decisions are dependent on the acts of virtuous agents (Gillespie and Ananny 2015). The virtue is a character trait that is needed by people to live well in the society. Relativist vs. Objectivist: In case of relativist, he/she thinks moral or ethical principles do not reflect absolute truth but changes its meaning relatively according to the cultural, historical and personal references (Ifinedo 2012). On the other hand, objectivist thinks that ethical principles are a set of values which will guide an individuals actions and choices. In general it can be said that relativism is dependent on the different variables depending on different scenarios. The normal and moral behaviour is defined in every culture. Therefore, it is not necessary that an act of a professional considered right in a culture is also right in another culture (Hersh 2015). In this way different organizations in different cultures have conflicts between them. On the contrary, objectivism provides a concrete and exact definition of things. Therefore, for an ICT practice relativism determines its rightness depending upon the circumstances (Obalola, Aduloju and Olowokudejo 2012). On the contrary objectivism gives a concrete definition for the rightness of a particular practice. Objectivism states that, certain moral principles are valid for all individuals and cultures of a specific region. Deontology vs. Consequentialism: The word deontology comes from Greek word Deon, which means duty (Ifinedo 2012). The deontological ethical theories primarily have three features. According to this theory the duty should be done for dutys sake. According to this theory, ICT professionals should take decisions that are based on rules and fulfils their duty. In deontology the action is taken in a situation without thinking about the product of the action (Obalola, Aduloju and Olowokudejo 2012). This theory states that at least some actions are morally obligatory. On the contrary the theory of consequentialism is a way of justifying professionals actions, by considering the consequences of the taken decision. This theory concentrates on maximizing the good for a taken action or decision (Hersh 2015). Statement of Professional Code of Ethics (ACS) ACS is abbreviation of Australian computer society. This society can be thought as a guardian of ethics for the Australian ICT industry. Hence it has developed a standard of ethics and codes of conduct for the information and communication technology professionals (Obalola, Aduloju and Olowokudejo 2012). The codes are related to priorities, honesty, competence, social implication and professional development. Code of ethics of a company or organization helps it by setting out the values that strengthen the code and will depicts organizations obligation to its stakeholders. According to the code of ethics of ACS an ICT professional should serve according to the interests of their employers and clients. In general they should serve the interest of community (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015). They should be honest about representing skills, services and knowledge. Moreover, the professional should enhance the quality of livelihood of the people who will be affected by his/her work. At the same time professional should also enhance their own professional development. At last the code of ethics endorses professionalism (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015. Professionalism in code of ethics states that, professionals should enhance the integrity of society and respect other members of ACS. The ethical code of competence states that a professional should accept only those tasks or works that he/she is competent to perform. Therefore individuals should be aware of their limitations and obligations (Crossler et al. 2013). This professional code implies that professionals should not misrepresent their own skills and knowledge. This code is supported by ethical theory of deontology. As it is not possible for an individual to have knowledge about all aspects or facets information and communication technology, therefore it is important to recognize the need of additional expertise and knowledge whenever required. Being a new industry, ICT is characterized by rapid changes in this specific field. Therefore, it is important to increase and improve confidence of people in the ICT industry (Daz-Campo and Segado-Boj 2015). In order to do this the professionals should refrained from any action in their professional role that can harm the image of the ICT profession (Gillespie and Ananny 2015). All this are important to depict professionalism for a professional. This professional code is driven by ethical theory of virtue. Connection Between the Professional Code of Ethics and Ethical Theories The ethical theories provides us a set of rules or framework that helps users to identify the problem, parties that are going to be harmed and parties involved in implementation of the course of action to resolve a particular ethical question (Crossler et al. 2013). Most of the theories provide a common framework to resolve any ethical issue in ICT industry. In order to resolve an ethical question the following steps are used, Collection of information: t first gathering of relevant facts and information about the particular ethical problem is done. At this stage assumptions related to the problem is removed and it is investigated that if any regulatory body or person can help in the problem. Identification of effected parties: In this stage the organizations, stake holders and individuals who can be affected by the problem are identified. Moreover, the conflicts between different stake holders and the way they are going to be affected by the ethical issue are discussed (Gillespie and Ananny 2015). Ethical issues involved: At this stage the ethical issues which are involved in the problem scenario are identified. Particularly the organizational, professional and personal ethical issues are investigated (Lennerfors, Fors and van Rooijen 2015). In addition to this, effect of these ethical issues on information and telecommunication industry is also checked at this stage. Identification of fundamental principles: Here it is investigated that which are the fundamental principles that will be affected like, Integrity, professional behaviour, confidentiality and competence (Crossler et al. 2013). After the identification, course of action is determined which includes use of organizational policies, guidelines and other applicable laws and regulations to resolve the ethical question. Conclusion It is important set some standard or ethical rules to refrain professionals and ordinary peoples from different illegal and unethical actions. Often professionals feel that legal actions are the moral actions too, but its not true in all cases. Therefore, enforcing the ethical rules moral decisions are need to be justified according to the rules and regulations of a particular profession. These values help professionals to act with responsibility and integrity in all of their professional dealings. Being a new technology, the ethical questions related to it are more abstract. Therefore the issues and there possible solutions are unknown and results are uncertain. It is crucial that, professionals should have prior understanding of different ethical issues that may arise later. In addition to this, the enforcement of code of ethics will help the professionals the responsibilities and duties related to the profession. There is a growing demand for taking ethical design in to account in ICT industry. References Crossler, R.E., Johnston, A.C., Lowry, P.B., Hu, Q., Warkentin, M. and Baskerville, R., 2013. Future directions for behavioral information security research.computers security,32, pp.90-101 Daz-Campo, J. and Segado-Boj, F., 2015. Journalism ethics in a digital environment: How journalistic codes of ethics have been adapted to the Internet and ICTs in countries around the world.Telematics and Informatics,32(4), pp.735-744. Friedman, B., Kahn Jr, P.H., Borning, A. and Huldtgren, A., 2013. Value sensitive design and information systems. InEarly engagement and new technologies: Opening up the laboratory(pp. 55-95). Springer Netherlands. Gillespie, T. and Ananny, M., 2015. Introduction.Information, Communication Society,18(3), pp.251-254. Hansen, J.M. and Walden, E., 2013. The role of restrictiveness of use in determining ethical and legal awareness of unauthorized file sharing.Journal of the Association for Information Systems,14(9), pp.521-549. Hersh, M., 2015. Ethical Engineering: Definitions, Theories and Techniques. InEthical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability(pp. 15-62). Springer London. Ifinedo, P., 2012. Understanding information systems security policy compliance: An integration of the theory of planned behavior and the protection motivation theory.Computers Security,31(1), pp.83-95. Lennerfors, T.T., Fors, P. and van Rooijen, J., 2015. ICT and environmental sustainability in a changing society: The view of ecological World Systems Theory.Information Technology People,28(4), pp.758-774. Lindley, D., Aynsley, B., Driver, M., Godfrey, R., Hart, R., Heinrich, G., Unhelkar, B. and Wilkinson, K., 2013. 11. Educating for professionalism in ICT: Is learning ethics professional development?.Professionalism in the Information and Communication Technology Industry,3, p.211 Miano, R., Aller, C.F., Anguera, . and Portillo, E., 2015. Introducing ethical, social and environmental issues in ICT engineering degrees.Journal of Technology and Science Education,5(4), pp.272-285. Mutula, S.M., 2013. Ethical Dimension of the Information Society: implications for Africa.Information Ethics in Africa: Cross-Cutting Themes, Pretoria: AC, pp.29-42. Ocholla, D. and Britz, J., 2013. Complexities in Understanding and Developin Information Ethics in Africa.Mousaion,31(2). Shin, S.K., 2015. Teaching critical, ethical and safe use of ICT in pre-service teacher education.Language Learning and Technology,19(1), pp.181-197. Slade, S. and Prinsloo, P., 2013. Learning analytics ethical issues and dilemmas.American Behavioral Scientist,57(10), pp.1510-1529. Stahl, B.C., Eden, G., Jirotka, M. and Coeckelbergh, M., 2014. From computer ethics to responsible research and innovation in ICT: The transition of reference discourses informing ethics-related research in information systems.Information Management,51(6), pp.810-818. Whitehouse, D., Duquenoy, P., Kimppa, K.K., Burmeister, O.K., Gotterbarn, D., Kreps, D. and Patrignani, N., 2016. Twenty-five years of ICT and society: codes of ethics and cloud computing.ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society,45(3), pp.18-24. Obalola, M., Aduloju, K. and Olowokudejo, F., 2012. Organizational commitment and corporate ethical values: exploring the nexus between employees' psychological contract and firms' ethical behaviour in the Nigerian Insurance Industry.Journal of Management and Sustainability,2(1), p.43.

Octavian Augustus Essays - Julio-Claudian Dynasty, Cleopatra

Octavian Augustus Octavian Augustus By Derek Jeter Octavian Augustus (63 B.C.E-14 AD) is known as the first, and one of the greatest, Roman Emperors ever. Octavian enabled the long, peaceful time of the Pax Romana by changing Rome from a fragile, crumbling republican government to a mighty empire. Octavian?s government was strong enough to withstand weak emperors who mismanaged the Empire. His changes proved to be the cornerstone of the greatest empire the world has ever seen. During the Conflict of Orders, the lower class Romans, or plebeians, forced the upper class Romans, known as patricians, to give them more rights and liberties (Hadas 1969). The Republican government in Rome was established to satisfy the plebeians, while still leaving a majority of the control with the patricians. The government consisted of three main parts: the senate, the assemblies and the magistrates. The Senate was a group of former state officials, usually patricians, who acted as advisors, controlled public finances and handled all diplomatic dealings with other states (Hanes 1997). The assemblies were the various public meetings where citizens voted on laws and public office (Hanes 1997). Magistrates were the elected officials who put the laws into practice. The most important of these magistrates were the consuls. The two consuls each elected for one year acted as the chief executives of the state. Censors were also very important magistrates. Censors were elected every fi ve years to take a census and record the wealth of the people. Censors also had two other very important jobs. The first was to appoint candidates for the Senate and the second was to award contracts for government projects (Hanes 1997). As time passed, the Romans also began to elect other magistrates called praetors. Praetors acted as judges but could also fill in for the Consuls when they were away (Hanes 1997). The Republic first started to lose power in 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius were the leaders of a campaign to help the landowners/soldiers of Rome (Hanes 1997). The brothers tried to redistribute the public land of Rome to small farmers. The Senate, however, feared that the brothers were trying to take power away from the government. They ordered mobs to kill the brothers and hundreds of their supporters. The Gracchi?s efforts were the beginning of the Roman Revolution (Hanes 1997). In 107 B.C.E, a popular general named Marius was elected consul. Because of his military background, Marius was interested in improving the army. He started to accept anyone into the army regardless of whether they owned any land. This created a vast change in the makeup of the armies. Many poor people decided to join in hopes that they would benefit financially from any victories. Soldiers became attached to Roman generals rather than the state because of the possible economic gains (Hanes 1997). The government?s separation of the army would prove to be a major problem. Laws could only be enforced if The Republic controlled the armies. When the army followed a general rather than the government, the government lost all power. In 90 B.C.E, Roman allies in Italy finally rebelled against the city. The allies were angry that they were not considered citizens of Rome. They had benefited little from Roman expansion even though their citizens had served in the military. After a very bloody campaign, the Social War, as it was called, eventually ended when the allies were defeated. The Senate, however, decided to grant citizenship to the allies (Hanes 1997). This move expanded the Roman State to all of Italy. As the number of citizens grew, The Republic became harder and harder to manage. During the Social Wars, one general, Lucius Cornelius Sulla proved to be very successful in battles. Based on this military success, Sulla was elected consul in 88 BCE After completing his term, Marius tried to stop Sulla from taking any military command. Sulla countered by marching his troops on Rome (Hanes 1997). Civil war broke out. Sulla led his troops to victory and became dictator. After killing many of his opponents, Sulla tried to change Rome back to its days of Republican government. When he felt he had accomplished his task, Sulla retired to his farm in the

For centuries, the idea of God has been a part of Essays

For centuries, the idea of God has been a part of man's history. Past and present, there has always been a lot of different types of believers and non believer in god. The people who are believed to have faith in god are in many different religions. On the other hand, there are many different people out there trying to find actual proof that there is god. There are many people trying to seek answers. Even today with all l the technology we have, we still do not have a definite answer to the question "does God exist". Among many philosophers and scholars who have tried to answer this question, I am going to peak on Rene Descartes' theory on Gods existence. In terms of believers and non-believers, Descartes is definitely one of the believers. Though there are so many uncertainties, the existence of all of these uncertainties may explain why God really exists. For the believers, God provides answer to all of their questions except questions regarding God himself. The following are some of the general arguments for the existence of God. Descartes' hypothesis on his theory starts with the idea of a God who is eternal, infinite, omniscient, omnipotent, benevolent, and perfect. In his earlier Meditations, he claims that God may be a deceiver. He later concludes that god cannot be a deceiver because deceit would be an attribute of imperfection. According to Descartes, this idea of a intelligent powerful being, who created everything that exists, can not come from within him who is imperfect. Descartes believes that this perception of God is that he could only actually arise from a perfect being. Thus Descartes concludes the only remaining option to be that this perception was naturally in him. We may wonder why god created humans to be imperfect. This would bean that since he created something imperfect, he is imperfect himself. Yet, Descartes claims that God gave humans no faculty for making mistakes. The reasoning behind these statements made by Descartes is related to free will. Descartes states that the faculty of judgment is not infinite in human beings; human error is not dependent upon God but is rather a mere defect. On the other hand, free will is a freedom to choose to do want you want to do. From these statements it is clear that humans can make mistakes. In the " Meditation Five," Descartes attempts to prove his hypothesis of the existence of God based on the theory of clarity and distinctness of perception. He begins this theory by saying that they're things outside of him that have their own truth. Since he knows these ideas clearly, he claims that they are something and are true. Descartes states that he only claims things to be true that he can clearly perceive. From this concept, he constructs something that can prove him right. He believes that the distinct perception of the existence of god means that anything on this earth is created by god. That is the only logical explination. From this assumption, Descartes comes to the conclusion that God does exist. As long as it is clear and distinct, everything Descartes says is clear and true. In "Meditation Four," he states that "the will extends further than the intellect". He also stated that the faculty of choosing, his will, is finite. Descartes acknowledges the fact that he or anybody on this earth is not perfect. From these things that are being stated be Descrates, I believe that there is a God and one day we will have an explanation.

Elizabethan Era Social Classes Essay Example

Elizabethan Era Social Classes Essay Example Elizabethan Era Social Classes Paper Elizabethan Era Social Classes Paper Elizabethan Family Life Family life during the Elizabethan period was largely determined by what class the family was in. As in how rich the family was. But the main exception to this was religion. It didnt matter whether the family was wealthy, poor, young or old, each family was expected to attend a protestant church service every Sunday. Each family member also wore different clothes. A wealthy family led a completely different life to one of a poor family and men led very different lives to women. The men had quite a lot of control over the lives of the women in the family during the Elizabethan times. The women were expected to always be ready to do whatever the men told them to do and were supposed to obey the men in all aspects of their life. In their religion, disobedience was seen as a crime or wrongdoing. The whole purpose for women to get married was to Increase the position and wealth of her own family and then to produce children. Love was not really considered as a reason to get married back then but may come In the marriage. Male children were preferred back In those times. There were no careers available to women and the girls did not receive an education either, so most of the females werent able to read or write. It was the womens job to keep the house tidy and in good shape. It was also the responsibility of the women to keep their family healthy by producing medicines from their available herbs. The Elizabethan men led a life of power, completely opposite to the women and much more favorable. The men made all the decisions and the women were expected to obey them. The men supported the family by going to work and they had a wide variety of occupations. The men were expected to Improve the positions of family members too by working with wealthier people and families than their own and patronizing with them. Boys had an education and went to school for 6 days a week. This meant they were literate, unlike the girls. When tobacco was introduced, smoking was very popular among men. The lives of the children during the Elizabethan times wasnt too different from how it is today. The children of the family had to serve and obey the adults of the family, including women. They were raised to obey and respect their parents. Children were very precious during the Elizabethan period because infant mortality was high. Just like the 21st century, children had toys to play with for entertainment. Some of those toys Included dolls, toy soldiers, hobbyhorses and many others. But unlike the Elizabethan times, children now have PCs and play stations to entertain themselves. Children were split in classes like the adults. The more high-class children were more punished more severely for bad behavior than the lower class children. The homes back in the Elizabethan period depended on how rich the family was. What the family did in and outside of the home was also determined by what time of day it was. Most of the Elizabethan houses were half built out of timber with black ND white styles The interiors had separate rooms and usually levels. The walls were made of wattle, which were daubed with mortar and later had whitewash applied to it. For an upper or middle class family, windows were constructed from glass, like today, but if the family was lower class then windows became wooden shutters. The houses had thatched roofs made of straw or reeds. Rushes were used to cover the floor for most families but marble or slate was used only for the very wealthy families. The chimneys were very high and made of stone. The houses didnt have running water so it had to be obtained through water pumps, owing this caused many people to get typhoid. Heat was produced by fires and lighting from candles and torches. Bubonic plague was spread easily as the thatched roofs made good homes for rats and mice (from which the disease was spread). The Elizabethan home was where families were able to find comfort. Education during the Elizabethan times was mainly for the boys of the upper and middle classes and girls of the upper class. Girls were usually not allowed in schools. The simplest form of education started at what was called a Petty School. This school was conducted for boys from 5 7 years of age. This type of school wasnt actually held in a school building but the teachers house. These petty schools ran for only a small fee and were conducted by a local and well- educated housewife. Reading and writing English and lessons about behavior were taught at these schools, as they were considered to be the fundamentals of education and must be taught early in childhood. From 7 14 years of age, boys not in the upper class would attend a grammar school. They were taught by ushers (senior students at grammar school) from 7 10 years of GE. They learnt slightly more advanced English writing and speaking skills and basic Latin. When the boys turned 10 they left their ushers to be taught by masters in more Latin, literature, Greek study, religious education and simple math. After grammar school, the boys left for university at an early age of 14. People ate different things in the Elizabethan period depending on their wealth and social status. During those times, meat was thought to be a luxury enjoyed by the rich. The poor would not have had much food varieties but the rich had plenty to choose from! Old eat are lamb, beef, mutton, bacon, fish, carrot, leeks and fruits. Many different kinds of food were introduced in the Elizabethan period, such as tomatoes, kidney beans and potatoes. Tutors also enjoyed eating dessert, obviously. They ate pastries, tarts, cakes, custard and cream. The food in those times werent actually too different compared to what we eat now. Family was very important back then and still is. Although life as a family was very strict and standardized, it was also vital to have close bonds as a family and to have good respect and obedience towards each other.

Scientific managers believe in business organisations without people Essay

Scientific managers believe in business organisations without people and human relations managers believe in people without organisations - Essay Example It is because of its problem solving capabilities through the application of scientific methods that it came to be put forth as a means of managing industries (Hughes 2004, p.251). Despite its falling into disuse for a number of years in main stream industries, its resilience can be seen through its being applied in different industries in the modern world as a means of boosting production. It was reported that during its initial application, this form of management became quite unpopular with workers because of the higher demand that it required of them. The initial application of scientific management creates a situation where there were threats of and at times actual strikes in a bid to remove the system from being used. This was because apart from the high demands it made from workers; it was also responsible for alienating them in such a manner that it put more emphasis on the importance of organizations at the expense of workers. Because of its stressing the importance of organizations, scientific management made it possible for the development of policies, which were designed to ensure that workers had to work for longer hours for lesser pay as a means of maximizing their potential while at the same time increasing profits. This system concentrated more on increasing worker output for so that industries could produce more goods for sale, hence creating a situation where the industry can continue to make profits while making maximum use of its workers. Scientific management came to be extremely popular in planned economies such as the Soviet Union and East Germany through the advocacy of Aleksei Gastev, who believed in the scientific organization of labour to ensure that the Soviet Union came to achieve maximum growth (Beissinger 1988, p.35). It can be said that the ideas of scientific management still have a significant influence on how management is conducted in the modern world since some companies in suc h countries